Measurement & Detection
Point detectors, imaging sensors, cameras, optical instruments, and a cross-cutting detector selection guide.
Photodiodes
The most common single-point detectors — Si, InGaAs, Ge. Operating principles, spectral response, speed, linearity, APDs.
Photomultiplier Tubes (PMTs)
Ultra-low-light detection — photocathode materials, dynode gain, dark current, single-photon counting.
CCD & CMOS Imaging Sensors
Area and line-array detectors — CCD, EMCCD, sCMOS, InGaAs arrays. Pixel architecture, noise, QE, frame rate, scientific imaging.
Scientific Cameras
Complete camera systems as distinct from bare sensors — interfaces, cooling, triggering, acquisition software, and integration decisions.
Power & Energy Meters
Optical power and energy measurement — thermal, photodiode, pyroelectric sensors. Calibration, dynamic range, best practices.
Integrating Spheres
Integrating sphere theory, design, and applications — total flux measurement, uniform illumination sources, spectral measurement.
Interferometry
Interferometric measurement principles and instruments — Michelson, Mach-Zehnder, Fabry-Perot, Fizeau, surface testing, displacement measurement.
Spectrometers
Complete spectrometer systems — miniature, benchtop, application configurations for absorption, emission, fluorescence, Raman.
Detector Selection & Comparison
Cross-cutting comparison — when to use PMT vs. photodiode vs. CCD vs. CMOS vs. APD vs. SiPM. Organized by application, wavelength, light level.